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To protect the identities of survivors interviewed for this report, because of the sensitive nature of online gender-based violence, only their first names are used.
What began as a social media opinion during the EndSARS protests quickly spiralled out of control. Angel, a writer and journalist, who opined that women should focus more on protesting issues directly affecting them, became the pawn of intense online harassment.
Strangers leaked her contact number; she received threatening messages and the abuse she faced extended beyond digital spaces, which forced her to change her route to work for her own safety.
“I had to change my routes to work because I was receiving threatening calls after my number was leaked out,” she said.
Angel was doxed when her phone number leaked. “I received rape threats,” she said, and also death threats both on her telephone line and on X. Her mother was dragged into it, and her life experienced massive disruptions. This changed the way she interacted online as she tweaked her X notification settings to only receive notifications about comments from people who are mutuals with her. “Even if we are mutually following each other, I might not respond to you,” she concluded.
For Nifemi, an entrepreneur, sharing her opinion during a debate on X about whether wives should cook at family gatherings made her the target of harassment that went beyond criticism of her views. Users searched through old posts on her account, reposted an account number she had posted for business purposes and used it to mock her.
“They started calling me a beggar, broke babe,” she shared.
The attacks became personal with men allegedly contacting her on WhatsApp pretending to be customers only to insult her. One instance she said was particularly humiliating. “Someone even came and asked if I did hookup (prostitution) and would like to book me,” she said.
The attack extended to her family, leading to insults towards her mother. She couldn’t stand it and deleted the tweet out of respect for her mother.
“I felt bullied. I was sad for days,” she said. “I cried a lot. The funny thing, there was nobody to talk to except one of my friends that kept telling me to ignore”.
According to her, some users still returned to her business post to shame her over the account number. The persistent attacks made her more withdrawn online and fearful of expressing opinion to avoid backlash.
“It taught me to not always put out most of my thoughts here,” she said. “I don’t have strong mental health for drags.”
The United Nations Women (UN Women), the UN organisation dedicated to promoting women’s rights and achieving gender equality worldwide, defines Online Gender Based Violence (OGBV) as any harmful act that is committed, assisted, aggravated, or amplified by the use of digital tools or information communication technologies. These acts can result in or have the potential to cause physical, sexual, psychological, social, political, or economic harm, as well as infringe on rights and freedoms.
Forms of OGBV against women include doxxing, which is the public release of private or identifying information about the victim. It is also cyberstalking and surveillance, online grooming, targeted verbal abuse and hate disinformation, sextortion, deepfakes and AI manipulation, nonconsensual sharing of intimate images, sextortion, amongst others.
OGBV against women is not alien and it has been funkified to be termed “banter” and “dragging.” Perpetrators are making use of digital tools such as social media, messaging applications, tracking devices, and surveillance cameras. In Nigeria, OGBV is highly rooted in patriarchal norms and is used as a tool for digital silencing of women.
A 2022 study by Plan International, an international humanitarian and development organisation that works to advance children’s rights and equality for girls, found that 58 percent of women and girls globally have been harassed online.
OGBV goes beyond online bullying- there is always a devastating, long-lasting consequence which affects women mentally, physically, sexually and socio-economically. It undermines women’s ability to participate fully in society and further escalates physical violence. Tabitha Empowerment, a non-profit organisation that helps survivors of OGBV and physical abuse, emphasised how online abuse increasingly overlaps with offline violence. In some cases, online grooming and manipulation reportedly progressed into physical sexual violence after perpetrators gained survivors’ trust digitally.
Personal testimonies from a 2025 report on Paradigm Initiative on Technology Facilitated Gender Violence, which spans across six countries: Cameroon, Kenya, Senegal, Nigeria, Zambia and Zimbabwe, reveal profound emotional, psychological, and reputational harm on women. It further states that many survivors resort to self-censorship, withdrawing from platforms, or relying solely on friends and family.
Angel is not alone, as several women, regardless of nationality, status, occupation, or wealth, are constantly abused online.
A tweet by Jewel that read, “All men hate women, know this and know peace,” which appeared harmless to her, triggered an outpouring of vile reactions from X users across Nigeria and beyond.
“I was scared and sad,” she said, as it was the first time she had been exposed to such reactions. She was advised to deactivate her account due to the bullying she received. However, she took a break on social media, reducing the way she commented and responded to issues online.
“I’d rather say whatever I have to say to myself,” she concluded.
Public Figures Facing Gender-Based Violence Online
Over the years, Nigerian artist Oyinkansola Aderibigbe, professionally called “Ayra Starr”, has been constantly bullied because of her clothing choices and feminist views. On the 6th of June, 2025, numerous news platforms reported her demanding to be left alone, voicing her frustration over relentless online bullying.
Some social media users made degrading comments in Pidgin English such as “Ayra Starr dey gba,” “So Ayra Starr mouth dey smell,” and “If na to shout stop killing our men, feminists and Ayra Starr go wear short skirt and shout”, a reflection of how online abuse can come in the form of personal humiliation and gendered attacks.
Popular artist Simisola Kosoko, professionally known as Simi, was bullied massively on X for tweeting against the rape of women. With an X user tweeting, “You have let emotions get the better of you. I hope you can withstand the backlash about to be melted on you. If you hadn’t even replied it would have been better than this.”
Simi has also been subjected to further bullying over her collaboration with singer Chike, who is currently involved in a public scandal.
An occurrence of non-consensual intimate image (NCII), a sexual or intimate image or video of a person that is created, shared, or published without their consent, occurred to a popular herbal concoction seller on TikTok, popularly called Sisi Alagbo. The video reportedly showed an intimate encounter involving her, her husband, and another woman.
Following the release of the video, she was subjected to cyberbullying as it was widely circulated across platforms such as Facebook and X. Sisi Alagbo later issued an apology for the video, despite being the victim
Two weeks later, another NCII incident of a 200-level student of Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT) emerged, one said to have been influenced by her female friend. This occurrence was followed by intense public backlash online and a physical occurrence where female students of ESUT stormed her hostel to harass and mock her, a clear indication of how technology-facilitated violence escalates offline.
With this, a pattern can be drawn on how social media platforms enable these attacks. TikTok is often used for non-consensual intimate image sharing. X (formerly Twitter) is characterised by coordinated attacks on women for speaking up on issues, especially women’s rights, feminism, and relationships, amongst others.
Legal and Institutional Response to Online Gender-Based Violence
Although Nigeria is a signatory to various international and regional legal instruments as well as local laws that continue to ask state parties to ensure protection of women, OGBV persists.
The General Recommendation NO 35 of Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) mandates protection from all forms of violence.
Article 3 of the Maputo Protocol, formally known as the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, is one of the strongest regional legal instruments applicable to Nigeria. It guarantees women the right to dignity and protection from all forms of harm and exploitation.
Also, the Violence Against Persons Prohibition (VAPP) act postulated in 2015, is a critical tool for prosecuting cases, especially where the form of Online GBV is revenge pornography or non-consensual sharing of intimate images.
While it doesn’t explicitly use the term online gender-based violence, it speaks against offences like stalking, which can be found in Section 17 of the VAPP Act. It also criticises emotional and verbal abuse under Section 14 and intimidation found under Section 18.
Section 24 of the Cybercrimes Prohibition Act of 2014 (amended in 2024) speaks extensively on cyberstalking. It criminalises sending offensive or false messages online. It criminalises several online activities like identity theft and impersonation, cyberstalking, child pornography, amongst others. The 2024 amendment clarifies it in scope, focusing on genuine harm rather than free speech.
Likewise, the Nigerian Data Protection Act of 2023 provides a legal framework for the protection of personal information. It safeguards privacy, regulates the processing of personal data, and protects the rights of data subjects, among other provisions. This Act represents a new frontier in protecting privacy rights and provides legal grounds to challenge forms of online gender-based violence (OGBV), such as doxxing.
The Nigerian Constitution also addresses freedom from discrimination, life and privacy. With these laws, OGBV is a breach of someone’s right to privacy.
Psychological Impact, Legal and Structural Challenges in Responding to Online Gender Violence
Speaking to Gladys Emmanuel, a human rights lawyer based in Abuja, she says that persistent online abuse forces women to withdraw from digital spaces and public discussions, as many women resort to self-censorship out of fear of backlash and harassment.
“We see depression and survivors living in fear,” she said, recounting a case where a survivor stayed indoors for almost two weeks due to trauma from online abuse. Gladys spoke of the psychological impact of OGBV, as many survivors suffer depression, fear, social withdrawal and in cases of intimate images, extortion.
She identified challenges such as implementation gaps, as most cybercrime units are based in urban areas like Abuja and Lagos, leaving rural areas with no access, delayed investigations, poor infrastructure and abandonment of legal processes due to victim stigmatisation.
According to her, survivors of OGBV must understand that the first 24 to 48 hours after an incident are critical. She mentioned that the first step a survivor should take is prioritising safety by avoiding further engagement with the perpetrator and resisting the urge to retaliate online despite possible provocation. After that comes preserving the digital trail.
Gladys stressed that Online platforms often retain traces of abusive interactions; therefore, survivors are advised to take screenshots of abusive messages, comments, posts, or conversations, ensuring that details such as usernames, timestamps, and profile information are visible.
“Obtaining metadata, including URLs, timestamps, and message headers, could strengthen digital evidence,” she said.
Gladys further stated that digital evidence may require authentication under Nigerian law, making the involvement of law enforcement agencies important. According to her, agencies with forensic departments can assist in extracting, preserving, and authenticating digital evidence for investigations and possible prosecution. Survivors are also encouraged to make use of reporting mechanisms available on social media platforms.
While response may take time, she said that reporting creates an official record of the incident. She emphasised that platform reports should be followed with formal complaints to agencies such as the Nigerian Police Cybercrime Unit or the National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons, adding that survivors who are unsure of how to navigate the reporting process can seek support from non-governmental organisations experienced in handling OGBV cases.
Speaking to Gbemisola Adebowale, Women’s Digital Rights and Safety Officer at TechHer, a community of learning, support and collaboration for women working with technology, said OGBV mirrors offline societal gender biases and restrictions.
According to her, Non-Consensual Intimate Images (NCII) dominate OGBV cases by 77% according to data analysed by TechHer in the past four years. NCII is further linked to sextortion where perpetrators demand sexual or financial favours. She also stressed that OGBV often escalates into offline harm through doxing and public exposure of survivors’ private details.
Adebowale, on her part, highlighted survivor hesitation to pursue a court case, anonymity of perpetrators as trolls and abusers often operate with unknown identities, as challenges of OGBV. She noted that collaboration with law enforcement like the Federal CID is costly, and the current Cybercrime Act lacks detailed provisions specifically targeting OGBV, which weakens enforcement and social media platforms often respond slowly or inadequately.
How Organisations Are Responding (Support Systems & Intervention)
Despite the frustrations that come with helping survivors, there are some organisations which are dedicated to assisting survivors of gender-based violence both offline and online to get over their trauma and receive justice; TechHer and Tabitha Empowerment are two of such organisations.
For many survivors of online gender-based violence, the first challenge is not simply escaping abuse, but finding someone willing to listen without judgement. TechHer operates a reporting and response platform called Kuram, designed to support survivors of online gender-based violence. At TechHer, survivors can report cases of technology-facilitated gender-based violence, ranging from cyberstalking and image-based abuse to digital surveillance and harassment.
Adebowale stated that the organisation’s first response is centred on the survivor’s emotional wellbeing. She explained that TechHer adopts a survivor-centred approach, allowing survivors to determine what form of justice or intervention they want rather than imposing decisions on them.
“When survivors reach out to us, the first thing we ask is how they are doing”, she said. “We try to understand their mental state and reassure them that what happened is not their fault, but the fault of the perpetrator.”
After documenting the case, the organisation presents survivors with possible options, ranging from content takedowns and cease-and-desist interventions to arrests and court action.
“We will not do what the survivor does not want. At the heart of our support system is putting the survivor’s needs at the center,” Adebowale said.
For cases involving legal action, TechHer works with a network of 150 volunteer lawyers across the 36 states in Nigeria. The organisation connects survivors and lawyers within the relevant jurisdictions, depending on where the survivor and perpetrator are located. The support extends beyond legal assistance, as TechHer also collaborates with therapists and other mental health professionals for survivors who require specialised psychosocial care. In cases involving minors, the organisation partners with groups working on violence against children.
While TechHer collaborates with platforms like TikTok and Meta, content in cases concerning NCII, takedowns can still take time. The organisation also uses tools such as StopNCII, a platform that helps prevent the spread of intimate images online by creating a digital hash that detects and removes matching uploads across participating platforms.
For TechHer, these interventions are not only about removing harmful content, but about helping survivors regain a sense of safety and control in digital spaces that often fail to protect them.
One of the biggest gaps survivors face in OGBV is not only access to justice but finding support systems willing to walk with them through the aftermath of abuse. At Tabitha Empowerment Centre, survivors of online abuse can reach the organisation through social media platforms, email, referrals, or by physically walking into any of its offices across different states.
Speaking to Gladys Emmanuel, Tabitha Empowerment Abuja; David Isaac of Tabitha Empowerment Plateau and Gladys Mathew of Tabitha Empowerment Kaduna – cases reported range from cyberstalking and online sexual harassment to non-consensual sharing of intimate images, deepfakes, digital blackmail, and online grooming.
Representatives of the organisation said image-based abuse remains one of the most common forms of technology-facilitated violence reported by survivors, particularly among students in higher institutions. In many cases, intimate images taken during relationships are later circulated online after conflicts or breakups.
“Most survivors tell us they had no idea when the images or videos were taken or how they ended up online,” one of the organisation’s legal representatives said during an interview. “By the time the content spreads, the intention is often to shame and destroy the survivor’s reputation.”
Beyond revenge pornography, the organisation also handles cases involving persistent cyberstalking, anonymous threats, sexual harassment in comment sections, digitally manipulated images, and online grooming that sometimes escalates into offline sexual violence. According to Tabitha, many survivors arrive deeply traumatised and unable to narrate their experiences immediately. As a result, its support system is built around a survivor-centred and trauma-informed approach.
“The first thing we try to do is reassure survivors that we believe their story,” a representative said. “We do not pressure them into making decisions. Some survivors need several counseling sessions before they are even able to fully speak about what happened.”
Depending on the survivor’s needs, the organisation provides psychosocial support, trauma counselling, legal consultation, mediation, referrals, and court representation. Survivors are also informed of the legal options available to them, but the final decision on how far to pursue a case rests entirely with them.
“We allow survivors to take ownership of the process”, representatives explained. “Some people want the matter taken to court immediately. Others simply want the abuse to stop or need emotional support first.”
Tabitha Empowerment works closely with law enforcement agencies, legal aid partners, and other civil society groups when cases require criminal investigations or urgent interventions. This is possible through stakeholder partnerships with the Sexual and Gender-Based Violence department of the Federal Ministry of Justice, the Centre supports survivors seeking restraining orders, prosecutions, or other legal remedies.
In one case handled by the organisation, a survivor’s intimate images were allegedly distributed across multiple WhatsApp groups by a former partner after their relationship ended. The organisation escalated the matter to the appropriate authorities for investigation and digital tracing.
The organisation also highlighted how online abuse increasingly overlaps with offline violence. In some cases, online grooming and manipulation reportedly progressed into physical sexual violence after perpetrators gained survivors’ trust digitally. Despite these challenges, the Centre says its work goes beyond legal representation. Staff members described survivors needing long-term therapy, emotional support, and continuous reassurance after experiencing technology-facilitated abuse.
For Tabitha Empowerment, supporting survivors means more than pursuing convictions. It also means helping them regain safety, confidence, and a sense of control after violence that often follows them from digital spaces into real life.
While some survivors eventually find relief through platform reporting mechanisms, counselling or blocking their abusers, for others, the violence doesn’t end there. The fear continues to live with them, affecting their lives.
Conclusion
As technology continues to shape our Nigerian lives, responses to gender based violence must continue to evolve, as OGBV is no longer a private experience but a public and systemic issue that demands coordinated action.
Communities and families have important roles to play in preventing and responding to OGBV. Families have to support survivors instead of blaming them and refrain from morality sermons. This will give them the strength to seek justice.
There is also the need for increased digital literacy in communities and schools, stronger support systems for survivors to address OGBV, like a centralised reporting system connecting survivors to law enforcement, legal aid and psychosocial support services across the country. More importantly, survivor-centred and trauma-informed responses should be implemented to help survivors without pressure on them.
This report was commissioned with support from the Centre for Journalism Innovation and Development (CJID) under a journalism support initiative funded by the Royal Norwegian Embassy.
